The Ecological Impacts of War

War is a powerful force of destruction, not only for the human lives it claims and the societies it fractures, but for the environment it leaves behind. From scorched earth policies and bombed-out infrastructure to poisoned rivers and uprooted forests, warfare acts as an accelerator of environmental collapse. In the era of climate change, the ecological consequences of conflict are central to the sustainability of our planet.

The Earth operates within a set of nine planetary boundaries that define a safe operating space for humanity. These boundaries include climate change, biodiversity loss, land-system change, freshwater use, and chemical pollution, among others. According to the Stockholm Resilience Centre, six of these nine boundaries have already been breached, including those related to greenhouse gas concentrations, biosphere integrity, and novel chemical entities. War worsens many of these boundary transgressions by generating emissions, destroying ecosystems, degrading soils, contaminating water supplies, and accelerating biodiversity collapse.

Yet the environmental impacts of war are routinely overlooked in climate discussions and emissions reporting. Military emissions are not included in most national climate pledges, while post-conflict rebuilding efforts often demand further fossil fuel use and resource extraction. Furthermore, the destruction of ecosystems through warfare removes natural carbon sinks and weakens the Earth’s ability to self-regulate.This article explores some of the key environmental dimensions of conflict. It highlights how modern warfare is driving ecological harm in ways that will persist long after the fighting stops.

CO₂ Emissions and Air Quality

Military operations significantly increase greenhouse gas emissions, both directly through the use of fuel-intensive equipment and indirectly through the rebuilding of destroyed infrastructure. Explosions, fires, and the combustion of fossil fuels during warfare release vast amounts of CO₂, black carbon, and other pollutants into the atmosphere.

Air quality is also degraded by particulate matter from destroyed buildings, burning vehicles, and chemical munitions. These pollutants pose immediate health risks to civilians and soldiers and contribute to global atmospheric degradation.

Case Study: War on Gaza (2023-current)
Research estimates that the Israeli military campaign in Gaza has produced around 1.89 million tonnes of CO₂ equivalent emissions in the first 60 days, with reconstruction projected to add another 31 million tonnes, which is comparable to the yearly emissions of countries like Ireland, Finland or Tunisia. Over 99 per cent of emissions during the initial months were attributed to air strikes and bombardments. The destruction of solar infrastructure has forced widespread reliance on diesel generators, further increasing local air pollution and dependence on fossil fuels.

Water Quality, Infrastructure and Disease

Warfare often targets or unintentionally damages water infrastructure, including pipes, treatment plants, and reservoirs. The destruction of these systems leads to contamination of drinking water supplies and makes it difficult for affected populations to access clean water, increasing the risk of waterborne diseases.

Chemical pollutants, fuel spills, and the decomposition products of human and animal corpses also seep into groundwater and river systems, creating long-term ecological and health risks.

Case Study: Kakhovka Dam Collapse, Ukraine (2023)
The June 2023 destruction of the Kakhovka Dam released 18 billion cubic metres of water, flooding over 600 square kilometres and unleashing an ecological disaster. It displaced more than 40,000 people and swept over 90,000 tonnes of heavy metals, including arsenic, zinc, and nickel, into the Dnipro River and the Black Sea.

Floodwaters carried sewage, oil, and industrial waste into reservoirs and aquifers, threatening drinking water for hundreds of thousands. Ukrainian health officials warned of heightened disease risks, including cholera outbreaks, while critical ecosystems such as wetlands and irrigation systems suffered long-term degradation.

Soil Degradation and Agricultural Land

Warfare can lead to irreversible changes in soil structure and fertility. Bombing and heavy machinery compact the soil, reduce microbial life, and destroy organic matter. Agricultural lands are abandoned or become battlegrounds, turning once-productive soil into barren or contaminated ground.

In some cases, arable lands are turned into minefields or polluted with heavy metals and chemicals, rendering them unsafe for farming for years or even decades.

Case Study: Syria’s Agricultural Collapse
In north-west Syria, a 2023 baseline survey of 66 topsoil sites found nickel levels averaging 133 milligrams per kilogram, chromium at 122 milligrams per kilogram, and other heavy metals such as cadmium and arsenic present at up to three times EU safety thresholds. Over 40 per cent of the country’s farmland has been degraded or abandoned, contributing to food insecurity and economic instability.

Native Species and Agricultural Heritage

Armed conflict frequently results in the destruction or deliberate removal of native vegetation. This includes the burning or bulldozing of forests, orchards, and grasslands, which not only undermines biodiversity but also erodes the cultural and agricultural heritage of local communities.

In many cases, these ecosystems are replaced by monocultures, non-native species, or left degraded, reducing ecological resilience and altering the landscape permanently.

Case Study: Olive Tree Uprooting in the West Bank
In the occupied Palestinian territories, roughly 45 per cent of agricultural land is planted with olive trees, numbering around 12 million. Since 1967, more than 800,000 olive trees have been uprooted, with spikes during periods of conflict. In the 2024 harvest season alone, at least 600 trees were destroyed in 32 separate attacks.

Olive trees, some of which are centuries old, are not just an agricultural staple but a cultural symbol. They are often replaced with fast-growing non-native pine trees, which have lower biodiversity value and are more fire-prone. This displacement reduces soil stability, water retention, and native biodiversity, altering the regional ecology.

Toxic Waste, Rubble and Debris

War leaves behind staggering quantities of debris, including collapsed buildings, destroyed vehicles, munitions, and industrial waste. This detritus is not inert, as it often contains hazardous substances like asbestos, synthetic chemicals, heavy metals, and explosive residues. Without proper cleanup, these materials leach toxins into soil and water and pose long-term threats to both ecosystems and human health.

The accumulation of war debris also hinders ecological regeneration by physically blocking vegetation growth, contaminating agricultural land, and altering local hydrology. In urban centres, especially, post-conflict waste management becomes a major ecological challenge.

Case Study: Mosul, Iraq (Post-ISIS Conflict)
Following the recapture of Mosul in 2017, the city was left with over 11 million tonnes of rubble, much of it containing concrete dust, asbestos, and chemical residues. Improvised disposal into the Tigris River and on agricultural land led to widespread environmental degradation. A UNEP report noted that such poorly managed debris created “secondary pollution hotspots” and significantly delayed ecological recovery efforts in and around the city.

Wildlife Displacement and Silent Extinction

Conflict does not just destroy habitats; it disrupts the delicate ecological rhythms that wildlife depends on. From blocked migration paths and land mines in forests to noise pollution and human encroachment, warfare displaces or kills countless animals, often in ways that go unrecorded.

Many affected species are already endangered or endemic to conflict-prone areas, making them especially vulnerable to population collapse. Conservation programmes are often suspended during wars, leaving ecosystems unmonitored and unprotected.

Case Study: Migratory Bird Decline in Gaza
Gaza’s coastal region is part of a vital migratory corridor for hundreds of bird species travelling between Africa, Europe, and Asia. However, ongoing conflict has severely damaged this ecological pathway. Bombing, urban destruction, and environmental contamination have led to the near collapse of bird populations.

Studies estimate that Gaza hosts around 150 to 200 bird species, many of which rely on its wetlands, agricultural lands, and forests for nesting and stopover during migration. Recent reports indicate massive losses of native bird habitats and nesting sites due to infrastructure destruction and pollution, with several species now critically endangered locally.

Conclusion: Recognising and Repairing Ecological Harm

As the world faces overlapping crises of climate breakdown and ecological collapse, the environmental costs of conflict must be neither ignored nor normalised. Warfare not only causes immediate destruction but also triggers long-term environmental degradation that can span generations.

Future peacebuilding and reconstruction efforts must embrace ecological restoration as a foundation for lasting recovery. This includes initiatives like remediating contaminated soils, restoring native vegetation, rebuilding sustainable water systems, and protecting biodiversity hotspots.

Legal frameworks are beginning to address these challenges. As awareness grows around concepts like ecological justice and environmental rights, there is hope that future responses to conflict will better consider the role of nature in recovery.

Encouragingly, more international agreements now recognise the need to protect the environment during and after conflict, offering the possibility of healing both communities and ecosystems together.

Understanding war’s role in environmental degradation is essential, not only for peace and justice, but for the stability of Earth’s life-support systems.

Further Reading

References